Evidence for effective Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Evidence for effective Nursing - Essay Example Evidence to of its effectiveness in nursing will be examined to support the research. In recent times, the number of university students with heightened stress levels and a myriad of mental problems has skyrocketed. Pamela van der Riet, Rachel Rossiter, Dianne Kirby, Teresa Dluzewska, and Charles Harmon conducted the research above that was accepted in May 2014. Their main argument was that a stress management and mindfulness program could be incorporated into learning support besides being a stress reduction method to support nursing and midwifery students build resilience and improve wellbeing. This study was in response to incorporation of the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program in Western clinical practice since the 1940s in managing stress and mental illness. This program initially was designed to assist clinicians adapt to the demanding healthcare environment. The idea is to transfer this program and incorporate as a learning support for the students who are pursuing nursing and midwifery. The stress management and mindfulness program is a superb addition to the education and support for nursing and midwifery students and should, therefore, be incorporated. As the nursing and midwifery profession continue to grow, there is increasing need for quality services from these careers (Maclnnes and Lamont, 2014). The research confirms and follows all the stages of the research process. The problem was determined as the increased frequency of stress and mental illness among the university students. The research question (Michigan Library, 2015) was explicitly stated as ascertaining the impact of a stress management and mindfulness program in reducing stress levels among nursing students. The background of the study was also solid (Michigan Library, 2015). The MSBR has been in clinical practice use since the 1945s to combat mental and stress illness. These studies compelled the question of

Applications of seven habits by Steven Covey Essay Example for Free

Applications of seven habits by Steven Covey Essay This classic best seller for management, organisations and personal development encapsulates Steven Coveys research on 200 years of success literature since his doctoral program. It is perhaps the most influential book for managers and organizations to learn the Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, as the title suggest. It begins with the concept that people perceive the world differently, and we form our own paradigm how we view the world with our own unique lens. Covey explains that paradigms are the source of our attitudes and behaviours. Part of achieving insight involves making a paradigm shift which causes us to perceive things differently. Our paradigms will affect how we interact with others, which in turn will affect how they interact with us. Covey argues that any effective self-help program must begin with an inside-out approach, rather than looking at our problems as being out there (an inside-out approach). We must start by examining our own character, paradigms, and motives. Hence, character and principles are keys to success, effectiveness, and happiness in life. The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People points out: Principles are guidelines for human conduct that are proven to have enduring, permanent value. The seven habits divided into two main groups: private victory (independence) and public victory (interdependence). Habits of Independence: Habit 1: Be Proactive We must use our resourcefulness to work toward our personal goals. Everyone has both a circle of influence and a circle of concern. Worrying endlessly about things outside of our circle of influence isnt particularly productive. Working within our circle of influence is productive. Further, the more effective we become, the more our circle of influence will expand. Habit 2: Begin with the End in Mind What do we want people to say about us at our funerals? How will we be remembered? To succeed, Covey suggests visualizat ion. Every successful outcome is created twice; first one plan and second on implementation. Habit 3: Put First Things First The key to putting first things first is to understand that we have many things we can do which will have a significant, positive impact on our lives. Covey stresses that we must balance Production (P) with Productive Capability (PC). We must keep the golden eggs, but also maintain goose. Prioritization is the essence of time management. Interdependence The remaining habits in The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People are habits of interdependence. Rather than being dependent upon other people, or trying to be totally independent, we learn how to be more effective by effectively working with others. Habit 4: Think Win/Win Thinking Win/Win means seeking mutual benefit in our human interactions. To be successful in the long run, we should learn to consider others win factors besides our own. Habit 5: Seek First to Understand, then to be Understood Most people talk more than they listen. Until we listen actively and seek to understand others, we would n ot be understood. Active listening is about sensing the three modes of communications, i.e. visual, vocal and verbal. Habit 6: Synergize It means that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Combining the strengths of each individual yields multiple outcome beyond expectations, simply 1+12. Habit 7: Sharpen the Saw Just as a machine will wear out quickly if not properly maintained, the same is true for our own personal productivity. We must take care of ourselves. The four dimensions are physical, mental, social/emotional and spiritual renewals. To me, the first concept on paradigm is profound. I agree that when we change our perspectives, our attitudes and behaviours will change. To achieve enrichment in life, we need to understand our own paradigm, crystalize and anchor our principles. I have adopted these principles and find peace in self-awareness, social relationship and professional communications. Covey has successfully synthesised the successful habits of leaders, crystallised and organized them into two progressive segments. In line with child development from birth through death, one indeed grows from dependence to independence in early childhood to adolescence . We then mature to adults, where we progress from independence to interdependence. The seven habits are indeed proven to be critical for any individual to attain private and public victories. Hence it is no surprise that whenever I business leaders within my network on which are some books they would read to enrich their management knowledge, this book is voted as the most influential book that changed their lives. I have personally adopted these habits in my personal and professional communications and testify their effectiveness. I have sharpened my strengths in strategic thinking and leadership by adopting the habits of Begin with the end in mind and Synergize. For instance at the Polytechnic, I mooted the idea of Young GEMS(Go-the-Extra-Miles-for-Service) camp for upper secondary school students to build our prospects for future enrolment. Upon approval from management for the Young GEMS camp, I formed a program team and successfully lead it to implement the camp through skilful synergy of the individuals competence. This book has provided comprehensive coverage on the why and how of each habit. The only gap I see is that the context are US-based. It would be better if there is an Asian version with case studies of local enterprises and leaders, for the benefit of Asian readers. For instance, unlike Americans, Asians are generally weak in questioning skills to seek to understand others. It would be helpful if there are some recommended strategies in questioning to gain insights of others perspectives. Also, Asians tends to individual and less apt to working in teams, particularly in appreciating individual strengths, expressing diversified opinions openly. Asian case studies on Win-win and Synergize would certainly be helpful. There is no doubt that all seven habits are pivotal in todays managers and organisations. I personally have benefited as an account manager in Hewlett-Packard Singapore Sales when I was sponsored to attend the Seven Habits of Highly Effective People one-week course. It has significantly increased my self-awareness, strategic thinking skills, time-management skills and revolutionizes my perspectives in life. I can testify that the Habits are practical prescriptions for building trustworthy and lasting relationships, hence empowering managers to be effective leaders who could develop the most conducive working environment that attracts and retains like-minded talents for the good of society.

Approaches to Palliative Care

Approaches to Palliative Care Palliative approach refers to the provision of a holistic care for patients who are no longer responsive to curative treatment and dying. The approach provides primary care services to improve the quality of life of the dying patients through addressing pain and other distressing symptoms and integrating physical, psychosocial and spiritual care to ensure a good death for the patients (Koutoukidis, Stainton and Hughson 2013, p. 865). It also offers support for families of the terminally ill patients to cope with grief and bereavement in the end-of-life stage of the patients (ACT Health 2014). In palliative care, nurses are directly involved in ensuring a holistic care for the patients and liaising with the patients’ families. They deal with pain relief, provide emotional support for both the patients and families and communicate the patients’ disease conditions with other care specialists through regular team meeting and clinical discussion. They also carry out assessme nt, care plan and bereavement follow up with families and friends of the patients to help them cope with grief and loss (Tasmanian Palliative Care Service 2013, p. 9). An advanced care directive is a written statement about the wishes of the patients regarding their medical treatment choices and future health care. It is a way that individuals, especially those who are in chronic or life-limiting condition like Mr. Guzman, communicate their wishes to the carers when they are unable to make decision on their health care choices, which can help avoid unwanted treatment and reduce family stress in any emergency situation (The Advance Care Directive Association 2012). The advanced care directive is implemented within the legal framework of Victoria. The Medical Treatment Act 1988 allows the patients to refuse medical treatment that are not consistent with their cultural or personal beliefs in most of the circumstances, and The Guardianship and Administration Act 1986 enables the patients to appoint an enduring guardian to make decision on their health care (Victorian Department of Health 2014, p. 53). According to the Victorian legislation, medical pra ctitioners must usually seek for the patients’ consent regarding their health care choice in the advanced care directive before providing any medical treatment to the patients (Victorian Department of Health 2014, p. 54). The current best practice regarding pain management for palliative care patients consists of both non-pharmacological and pharmacological approaches. The non-pharmacological approach in palliative care is primarily enabling the patients to regularly access to family members or religious leaders to ensure their psychological, spiritual and religious needs are met. This approach may help address the emotional components of pain and improve the psychological wellbeing and physical health of the terminally ill patients (Hughes 2012, p. 26). Pharmacological approach involves using drug therapies to effectively manage the pain. Hughes (2012, p. 25) suggests that the first attempt of analgesia may not be able to fully control the patients’ pain, and ongoing commitment to assess and adjust the pain control technique can give the patients confidences, which thereby reduces pain. Therefore, patient-centred care is important as it enables health practitioners to assess and decide on spec ific doses and forms of analgesia that should be given to the patients. It is also mentioned that health practitioners do not normally use opioid analgesia to their full potential though they are safe and cost effective medications. For effective pain control management, does, duration of treatment and the patients’ current condition, such as renal and hepatic function, should be taken into account to ensure the patients receive adequate pain relief with less side effects (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence 2012). Filipinos believe in bahala na, which means leaving one’s fate to God. They also believe that a person’s suffering is the God’s will, and only prayer can save the person’s life. Families and friends of the dying patients should, therefore, pray for the patients rather than discussing advanced care directive and terminal prognosis with them as it frustrates the patients and makes them feel hopeless. Discussing end-of-life issue with the patients is also believed to bring unwanted outcome to the patients’ health condition (Mazanec and Tyler 2003, p. 54). Such attitude to dying conflicts with modern health practices in which the dying patients are provided with full disclosure of the fact of illness and treatment and are able to make decision on their future health care. Patients with Filipino decent may also want to die at home or die in their home countries. Those who are catholic may require a priest to perform ‘sacrament of the sick’ a nd may not allow the nurses to wash their dead bodies, making it difficult for health professionals to provide holistic care for the patients before and after death (Mazanec and Tyler 2003, p. 54). When a person is dying, numerous common symptoms may occur in the last day or the last few hours before death. Confusion and delirium may usually occur during the end-of-life stage due to metabolic and electrolyte imbalance, hypoxemia and toxin accumulation. The patient also demonstrates increased weakness, fatigue and drowsiness and requires more sleep. In addition to decreased oral intake including food and fluid, they are also presented with the symptoms of decreased cardiac output, cool extremities, cyanosis and decreased urine output due to diminished blood perfusion and renal failure. Breaths become shallow and accessory muscle is used as the patient is struggling with breathing. They also have raised temperature and urinal and faecal incontinence (INCTR Palliative care 2009). Nurses know that patients are close to death as they become less interested in food, and their mouths become very dry. They have trouble swallowing pills and medicines and are unable to cooperate with car egivers. Their skin become dark or pale, and heart rate is fast and irregular. Nurses also realize that they become confused, disoriented and restless (American Cancer Association 2014). Last offices are performed as soon as Mr. Guzman passed away. Though different hospitals may have different policies regarding this procedure, the dead person’s body is usually straightened, arms are placed at the side of the body, pillows are removed, eyes are closed, denture is placed in the mouth if available, and a rolled towel is placed under the jaw to prevent sagging. All jewellery and personal stuffs are removed and kept at a safe place unless the families wish to keep it with the patient (Funnell and Koutoukidis 2008, p. 175). Nurses also apply a firm pressure on the lower abdomen of the body to drain all the fluid and prepares the death body for removal to a hospital mortuary or holding area by removing all tubes and drainage, washing, dressing, wrapping and labeling the body appropriately. Other specific cultural or religious practices concerning how to care for the body after death must be adhered to as fully as possible. If there is no specific requirement, two nu rses should carry out a post-mortem care, and the body is subsequently taken to the hospital mortuary (Funnell and Koutoukidis 2008, p. 175). Grief has a negative effect on families and friends of the dead person though the death is anticipated. Some families may become shock, while others may become angry, anxious and resentful. They may also feel a whirlwind of emotions from intense grief and loss to relief and comfort from the fact that someone they love will no longer be suffering (Koutoukidis, Stainton and Hughson 2013, p. 873). Grief also affects health professionals, particularly nurses, who provide direct care for the dead person. Stress, loss of motivation to continue providing health care for other terminally ill patients and social withdrawal may be commonly seen, which negatively affect their work performance and socialization (Wilson and Kirshbaum 2011, p. 560). Some recommendations for nurses to deal with grief and loss include talking to someone they trust about how they feel and the difficulty of trying to coping with the problem, discussing it with other carers and health professionals at the facility or c ontacting the National Carer Counseling to gain advice on how to deal with grief and loss effectively (Carer Victoria 2005). The sense of loss and grief may not ease with time for some families and carers. Prolonged grief can be a serious concern and require further support to prevent negative consequences from happening. Supports that are available for families and health professionals to cope with grief and loss include counseling and bereavement support services provided by the Australian Centre for Grief and Bereavement in Victoria, which offers a range of bereavement support programs and experienced counselors including social workers, psychologists and psychotherapists to help individuals cope with grief and loss (Australian Centre for Grief and Bereavement 2014). Hospital and community health care center, palliative care agencies, volunteer groups and church and religious organizations are also available sources from which families and health professionals can seek support. National Association of Loss and Grief Victoria also offers supports for families, clinicians and stakeholders in the health an d community service sectors to deal with grief and loss such as providing a package of loss and grief resources and making a discussion with counselors, psychologists and general practitioners available for those who find it difficult to deal with grief and loss (National Association for Loss and Grief Victoria 2011). Word count: 1530 References: ACT Health 2014, Palliative care, viewed 12 May 2014, http://www.health.act.gov.au/health-services/palliative-care/. American Cancer Association 2014, When death is near, viewed 13 May 2013, http://www.cancer.org/treatment/nearingtheendoflife/nearingtheendoflife/nearing-the-end-of-life-death. Australian Centre for Grief and Bereavement 2014, Counselling, viewed 15 May 2014, http://www.grief.org.au/grief_and_bereavement_support/counselling_services. Carer Victoria 2005, Dealing with grief when your family member dies, viewed 15 May 2014, http://www.survivingthemaze.org.au/bcfc/PDFS/GEN-04-15.pdf. Funnell, R Koutoukidis G 2008, Tabbner’s nursing care: Theory and practice, 5th edn, Elsevier, NSW. Hughes, LD 2012, ‘Assessment and management of pain in older patients receiving palliative care’, Nursing Older People, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 23-29. INCTR Palliative Care 2009, Signs and symptoms at the end of life, viewed 13 May 2013, http://inctr-palliative-care-handbook.wikidot.com/signs-and-symptoms-at-the-end-of-life. Koutoukidis, G, Stainton, K Hughson, J 2013, Tabbner’s nursing care: Theory and practice, 6th edn, Elsevier, NSW. Mazanec, P Tyler, MK 2003, ‘Cultural consideration in end-of-life care’, Australian Journal of Nursing, vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 50-58. National Association for Loss and Grief Victoria 2011, National Association for Loss Grief Annual Conference 2011, viewed 16 May 2014, http://www.nalagvic.org.au/ab-currentwork.htm. National Institute for Health and Clinincal Excellence 2012, Opioids in palliative care: safe and effective prescribing of strong opioids for pain in palliative care of adults, viewed 13 May 2014, www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13745/59285/59285.pdf. Tasmanian Palliative Care Service 2013, Information booklet, viewed 12 May 2014, https://www.dhhs.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/8987/tas-palliative-care-info-booklet.pdf. The Advance Care Directive Association 2012, What is advance care planning?, viewed 12 May 2014, http://www.advancecaredirectives.org.au. Victorian Department of Health 2014, Advance care planning: Have the conversation, a strategy for Victorian health service 2014-2018, viewed 12 May 2014, http://docs.health.vic.gov.au/docs/doc/C1BEDB926ED9A6E7CA257C9A0005231A/$FILE/Advance%20care%20planning%20-%20strategy%202014-18.pdf. Wilson, J Kirshbaum, M 2011, ‘Effects of patient death on nursing staff: a literature review’, British Journal of Nursing, vol. 20, no. 9, pp. 559-563.

Monument backers go to court :: essays research papers

MONTGOMERY, Ala., Aug. 25 — About 100 demonstrators prayed outside the Alabama Judicial Building on Monday as attorneys went to court to stop a federal judge’s order to remove a 5,300-pound stone representation of the Ten Commandments from the building’s rotunda. ATTORNEYS for a Christian talk show host and a pastor asked U.S. District Judge William Steele for an injunction to block the monument’s removal, arguing that taking it away would violate the constitutional guarantee of freedom of religion. The action named as defendants the eight associate justices of the state Supreme Court, who last week overruled Chief Justice Roy Moore and directed that the federal court order be followed, said one of the attorneys, Jim Zeigler. Steele — who was the first judge to order that the monument be removed — scheduled a hearing for Wednesday. Minutes after the lawsuit was announced, police blocked off the front of the building with metal barricades. The building’s superintendent, Graham George, said they were erected to prevent protesters from leaning dangerously against the large windows and glass doors, where they have gathered for the last week. Many of the monument supporters spent the night in sleeping bags on a plaza outside the building and nearby steps, and one scaled latticework on the side of the building and spent the night on a ledge. The unidentified man climbed down after daybreak. Demonstrators have said they know the monument, installed two years ago by Moore, could be moved Monday or Tuesday. Federal courts have held that the monument violates the U.S. Constitution’s ban on government promotion of a religious doctrine. Moore, who contends that it is his duty to acknowledge God in the public rotunda of the Judicial Building, was suspended last week by a state judicial ethics panel for disobeying the order by U.S. District Judge Myron Thompson to move the monument. Moore told supporters at the Judicial Building that he would fight to keep the monument in the rotunda even though he had been suspended. He has pledged to argue his case to the U.S. Supreme Court â€Å"I have acknowledged God as the moral foundation of our law. It’s my duty,† Moore said. â€Å"Should I keep back my opinions at such a time as this in fear of giving offense? I should consider myself guilty of treason and of an act of disloyalty toward the majesty of heaven.† Whenever workers come to remove the monument, supporters of Moore intend to keep it from going anywhere by locking hands and dropping to their knees.

Compare and contrast the aims and methods of Trait Theory Essay

Psychologists seek to explain and formulate why people behave differently in everyday common situations and to define individual differences in terms of the knowledge gained and it structure. Personality can be defined as an individual’s characteristic qualities of thought, emotion and behaviour when interacting with their social environment. Traits are ‘relatively enduring ways in which an individual differs from another’ (Butt 2012, p. 46). Eysenck’s trait theory has it origins in the psychometric tradition of measurement; while Kelly’s personal construct theory adopts a phenomenological approach. The aims and methods of both theories will be critically compared and contrasted outlining their theoretical perspectives and the knowledge that each produce. By focusing on individual differences their different methodological approaches will be assessed in terms of their objective and subjective roles, highlighting that each have influential findings bu t don’t completely give a complete account of all personality phenomena. (Butt, 2012) Eysenck’s (1953) Trait theory adopts a nomothetic approach that classifies personality dimensions to measure and describe the individual differences of personality. It’s based on the assumption that individuals can be characterised by certain personal attributes or traits that in turn influence behaviour. Descriptions of traits have their foundation in everyday language used to describe human behaviour; trait theory draws on the histrionic usage of traits in vocabulary such as ancient Greek typology. This usage is used to support evidence of, ‘constitutional and biological factors that are indicated through personality traits’ (Butt, 2004). Eysenck used factor analysis to establish cluster traits using questionnaires (Eysenck’s Personality Inventory) proposing that two high order factors could account for the clustering profile obtained, extraversion vs introversion and neuroticism vs stability, he later added and third psychoticism vs superego. Each factor has second order traits established from ‘factor analytic studies’ (Butt, 2012, p.50) to describe more fully individual characteristics or tendencies. Eysenck believed biology could  explain the individual differences of personality, that causal factors at a neurological level in the cortical and autonomic arousal systems influence an individual’s temperament and behaviour. ‘The purpose of personality theory is not to capture the idiosyncratic nature of the individual’ (Butt, 2012, p.47), but used as an indicator of how a person is likely to react in certain situations. Eysenck acknowledges that it’s not only biology that influences behaviour, but our past experiences and learning can also have an influence on current reactions to different stimuli. However trait theorists tend to view personality from a deterministic perspective, as stable and enduring and don’t take into consideration the behavioural and attitude changes that people experience over time (Butt, 2012). Kelly’s (1955) personal construct theory, which is a form of phenomenology; views personality as idiosyncratic phenomena that can not be measured, as each individual adopts a unique way of making sense of their world. Each person is seen as a composition of personal world views or constructs that are based on unique experiences. Individuals construct others behaviour in terms of their own subjective viewpoint. Kelly proposed we act like scientists, who form theories and assumptions about ourselves, others and the world. By inquiry and testing out the uncertainties of our assumptions we produce further inquiry that is an ongoing lifelong cycle. Based on the cognitive approach, it is these constructs or schemas Kelly theorises that provide the basis of our reactions and behaviour (Butt, 2012). Both Eysenck and Kelly aimed to produce theories that have a clinical application, Eysenck sought to use his theory for clinical diagnosis in response to discredited psychiatric classifications, while Kelly who practised as a psychotherapist sought to facilitate therapeutic change through learning and self awareness. Eysenck viewed ‘classification as a fundamental part of scientific study’ (Eysenck and Rachman, cited in Butt, 2012, p.48), Kelly placed no importance on the psychometric tradition of assessment; the emphasis of his approach is on ‘recognising the value of examining the unique cognitive constructs of an individual’s world view and the self’ (Butt, 2012. p. 47). Kelly’s emphasis was on self-determination and problem solving rather than the diagnostic standardised dimensions used  by trait theories. Where trait theory seeks to discover societal norms and how we all differ in relation to them, personal construct theory places no importance on making individual comparisons through personality dimensions. Butt (2004) states that ‘trait theory does not account for the richness of personality in the way that personal construct theory can’. Trait theory would propose that behaviour is biologically controlled and therefore consistently predictable, which excludes the potential for change, while personal construct theory views constructs as being flexible and fluid and therefore open to change, even through individuals might actively resist the difficulty of change (Butt, 2012). Mischel (as cited in Butt, 2012) a student of Kelly’s questioned trait theories deterministic view of behaviour consistency, arguing that behaviour was a diverse phenomenon influenced by social stimuli; that people will behave differently according to the situation they find themselves in. Results from Zimbardo’s (1975) prison experiment would suggest that social situations can exert an influencing effect on behaviour. Skinner (1974), (as cited in Butt, 2012) proposed that traits can not explain behaviour; they only provide a description, not an explanation of behaviour that simply identifies regular patterns of behaviour, or a ‘cycle of redescription’ (Butt, 2004. p.3) Mischel also points out that traits are implicit personality theories based on subjective perceptions of the individual being rated, or a perception of others which will reflect biased prejudices of the sociocultural environment. He highlights a study were observers allocated the same traits to both strangers and those they new well, indicating ‘fundamental attribution error’ (Butt, 2004), which suggests that observers attribute over generalised traits that are not valid. This raises the issue of trait objectivity, by highlighting the subjective nature of evaluation that challenges the concept of trait structure, along with the validity and reliability of factor analysis (Butt, 2012). It would appear that the objectivity of trait theory comes into question and therefore the methods it employs. The argument of patterns of similarity verses uniqueness and the approaches they adopt either nomothetic (universally general) or idiographic (individually unique) is a relevant  area, as individual differences has traditionally set out to identify the universal dimensions of individuals. Eysenck used the nomothetic approach of factor analysis, which correlates clusters of traits that have been established through the use of subjective questionnaires and ratings. He addresses the criticism that factor analysis is prone to unreliable incongruent practitioner results stating that ‘universal agreement and correlation is strong support for his statistical method’ (Eysenck and Stanley, as cited in Butt, 2012, p. 51). His measurement techniques provide objective data that can be used to draw comparisons across wide populations and provide a structure in which categorical typology can be conducted. However his factor analysis would appear to be used more in marketing and ‘occupational rather than clinical psychology’ (Butt, 2012). Mischel stated ‘that the only thing objective about personality inventories was their administration and scoring’ (Butt, 2004). Alternatively the idiographic data gathered by personal construct theory produces subjective results that can not be generalised and therefore applied to our understanding of traits or people as a whole (Butt, 2012). Mischel concluded that personality testing only produces self-concepts and personal concepts and more appropriate idiographic measures should be employed like Kelly’s (1955) repertory grid, which helps to assess an individuals personal constructs. The repertory grid was devised by Kelly to elicit how individuals categorise constructs by comparing and contrasting experiences and events, allowing participants to access and assess personal meanings through construing. Individuals construe others behaviour in terms of their own subjective viewpoint. The results produced by repertory grid, can be subjected to factor or cluster analysis but only in terms of the individual meaning rather than a universal interpretation similar to Eysenck’s. Salmon (as cited in, Butt 2012) adopted Kelly’s theories of individual differences and integrates his philosophy and methods into learning in schools. She criticises the ‘market model of education’, which she states â₠¬Ëœdelivers packages of knowledge’ that measures and classifies children through tests and examinations, which removes the ‘individuality of the individual’, creating hierarchies of ability. Like Kelly she argues that learning should be more interactive and intersubjective, that children need  to engage in debate in order to formulate and challenge their own implicit constructs. She believed that it is only by the acknowledgment of existing constructs that personal development can occur, through methods such as Kelly’s repertory grid. By adopting personal construct philosophy, she developed the Salmon line, which seeks to draw out the implicit by empowering students to define the idiosyncratic meaning of their personal expectations around academic progress. Salmon believed that the use of these phenomenological methods instead of the generalised preset formats of trait theory, offered access to ‘living material’ of understanding, which encourages learning and change. (Salmon1994, as cited in Butt 2012, p. 59) Salmon also highlights the hierarchical nature of learning, that educational success is based on the testing and grading students through examinations. From a Kelliyan philosophy, hierarchical structures are unbeneficial; his emphasis is on the understanding of objects rather than labelling or comparison. Hierachical structures raise the issue of power relations that Kelly points to within trait theory and most psychometric methods. As with learning environments, power can be exerted by those who administer measurement tools and how they exert the knowledge that is gained. Trait theory because of its diagnostic emphasis has been criticised due to the pathologising nature of negative diagnosis. Richards (2002) highlights ‘reification where methodology ascribes an unwarranted description to an individual or object’ (p. 254). It could be argued that personal construct methods such as the repertory grid and the Salmon line eliminate the labelling of individuals by traits, by assisting them to identify their own personal constructs and meanings and therefore avoiding power relations (Butt, 2012). Hollway (2012) highlights the importance of agency-structure dualism when considering experimental methodology. Eysenck’s proposes that traits have their explanations in innate biological factors, which would suggest that agency has little or no influence on behaviour and that social factors are irrelevant, suggesting that personality is fixed. Personal construct theory views this dualism as complimentary, where the individual is viewed in the context of the societal environment in which they are constructed. Kelly  proposes that individuals have some degree of agency because structure partly restricts through social construction and therefore have an ability to initiate change. While individuals can change their social and individual constructs, social structure clearly has an influence on behaviour. Salmon shows through examples of learning and the application of the salmon line, the interaction between agency and structure. She highlighted that ‘knowledge is never neutral it comes with the interests and concerns of a particular siociocultural source’ (Salmon, as cited in Butt, 2012, p. 59), clearly indicating how societal influences impact on the agency of individuals (Butt, 2012). Both trait theory and personal construct theory seek to gain an understanding and explain why individuals act in terms of individual differences. Eysenck and Rachman’s trait theory adopts a nomothetic approach using psychometric testing to measure personality traits. Kelly’s personal construct theory emphasise the uniqueness of individuals, seeking to understand how individuals construct their subjective world views, based on their own experiences. Using phenomenological methods they produce detailed accounts of individual personalities that avoid comparisons, with an emphasis on interpretation rather than scientific explanation, in contrast to the psychometric tradition which sets out to discover societal norms and use these to explain individual differences (Butt, 2012). Eysenck outlines personality in terms of dimensions which reflect the underlying biological basis of personality. Personal construct theory recognises the ability for change unlike trait theory and uses idiographic methods such as the repertory grid and the Salmon line to enable chance to occur, through the interaction of personal agency and social structures. Salmon showed how personal construct theory can be implemented into clinical practice, however a complete theory of personality would need to encompass, structure, psychopathology and change, it would appear that both theories have areas of development in both theory building and testing. References: Butt, T. (2012). Individual differences In Hollway, W., Lucey, H., Phoenix, A., and Lewis, G. (eds). Social Psychology Matters (p.1-22). Milton Keynes: The Open University. Butt, T. (2004). Understanding people, Basingstoke and New York, Palgrave MacMillan. Richards, G. (2002). Putting psychology in its place, Hove, Psychology press.

Mariachi Music Research Paper Essay

Mariachi music originated in Jalisco, Mexico. It is said it began in the town of Cocula. It is a version of theatrical orchestra, it includes violins, harp and guitars which developed in and around Jalisco. It began in the 19th century, and is still popular today. The Violin is apart of a Mariachi ensemble, it is a string instrument. It is 4 stringed and the smallest, highest-pitched member of the string family. The purpose of the violin in mariachi music is to complement trumpet melodies. The most important element of this style of playing to use the entire bow. The Vihuela also plays a major role in a Mariachi ensemble. The Vihuela is an instrument that is basically two different guitars ring instruments. The one played in the Mariachi band is from the 19th century. It has 5 strings and originated from Mexico. There is another one from the 15th and 16th century, that one originated in Spain. That specific Vihuela typically had 12 strings. The Guitarron is a very large, deep bodied Mexican 6- string acoustic bass. It is similar to the guitar developed from the 16th century. The Guitarron is typically played by doubling notes by octave. The Guitarron is used to keep the beat and other instruments together. The trumpet is apart of the brass family, it has the highest register out of all the other instruments. It is played by blowing air threw closed lips. The trumpet replaced the cornet in the mariachi band, now there is usually two trumpets in a mariachi band. The trumpet combination in mariachi was popularized in the 1950s. There are many characteristics to mariachi bands. The forms found in mariachi music are, the most important element of the style. Mariachi song forms (such as the bolero, cancià ³n ranchera, son, huapango, joropo, and danzà ³n) are always the rhythmic patterns that are performed by the guitar section of the group. There is also singing involved in mariachi music. For example, the â€Å"grito mexicano†, a yell that is done at musical interludes during a song, either by the musicians and the listening audience. Like of that would be the mariachi players singing â€Å"AY YA YAY YA!†